مجله تاملات فلسفی
پیاپی 30 (بهار و تابستان 1402)

The Sadrian School has a high potentiality to answer many questions in the field of architecture. This article tries to explain architect's activity based on the Sadrian School. The method of research is to analyze, interpret and infer from Mulla Sadra's thoughts to explain the architect's activities in different aspects. Architect's activity is one of the three basic works, which meets the fundamental need for a place to live in different levels. Therefore, a system of concepts related to the architect from craft and purpose, encompassment and disposition, order and cause, beauty and love are extracted from Mulla Sadra's words and discussed.The architect as a purposeful creator has imaginal and intellectual forms of the life of the man and his acts. He tries to provide a place for living as a platform for doing different activities by the disposition of the environment and changing dimensions and relationships in nature. The architect according to his/her existential level encompasses the world and recognizes causes and effects in the perfect system of existence. By dispositioning the environment in order to make a place for human life, he/she actualizes an order in nature that becomes the ground for humans and other beings to reach their desired perfection. By perceiving beauty and choosing the beloved, he regulates his intrinsic faculties. Through this inner order, the architect disposes and changes the world, and his activity becomes the manifestation of the beloved's perfect form, desirable attributes and actions.

The present paper based on a descriptive-analytical research method, tries to survey the place of time in Dariush Shaygan's intellectual system, especially its appearanceand emergence in the realm of traditional and modern culture, poetry, painting, architecture and novel. The results show that he considers time to be the central signifier or core of culture. This central core in traditional Oriental cultures is mythical time and in modern Western culture is linear time. With a deep attachment which has to the mythical time and its manifestations, he tries to find it by digging into various thoughts. According to Shaygan, although with the advent of modernity in Western culture, the mythical time was abolished and replaced by linear time, but at the end of the twentieth century, following the electronic revolution, linear time gave it’s place to the global present time which has great affinity with mythical time. Of course, their ontological differences should not be disregarded. Eventually, this effort of Shaygan leads him to the novel, and he finds the time of the early myths in Marcel Proust's novel In Search of Lost Time.

Wolfson,The well-known Jewish philosopher,sought to rewrite the history of Western philosophy with a focus on Judaism.To do this he used the hypothetical-inferential method or the Talmudic method of studying texts In this way.he sought unresolved problems,unknown sources,unknown relationships,and unknown paths of philosophy.The challenge of understanding the origin,structure,and diversity of philosophical systems was fascinating to him.Although there was no connection between Talmudic study and philosophical research,he made the best use of a methodological affinity between them.This method is based on the assumption that there is no real contradiction in the thoughts of a real thinker.Obviously,by finding a case of violation,one can question the above assumption and, consequently,Wolfson's method. Coherent and systematic presentation of a thinker's thoughts and expression of the unspoken and unwritten thoughts of his thoughts,linking irrelevant contents and resolving the apparent contradictions of a thinker's thoughts are The most important functions of this method.His.use of terms regardless of their historical evolution,imposing his intellectual framework on the thinker in question,exaggeration and arbitrariness in choosing the text, and Judaizing the history of thought and his support for Jewish thought are the most important criticisms this method.

In "Value and Virtue in a World Without God," Weillenberg considers naturalism as an atheistic account of the universe. He first introduces the meaninglessness of life in the absence of God with four narrations and then challenges it with the help of three perspectives. He then goes on to find ways to ontologically base morality on religion and tries to show that these ways are dead ends. In this book he does not clarify his alternative view, but in the book "Strong Ethics", it is revealed that he is a naturalist. In response to the question why should one live morally? It wants to show that there is a possibility of moral motivation apart from God, although God can also be a good supporter of morality. In introducing virtues into his proposed ecosystem, he is no longer content with merely presenting a positive view, and seeks to show that some virtues are born in the absence of God, or at least have a deeper meaning. The most important criticism of him is the identification of theism with being a Christian.

The problem of evil has different formulations, one of which is called the existential problem of evil; this means that when the evils and sufferings of the world actually affect man, man is psychologically unable to continue his former relationship with God and it seems that his emotions are offended by God. In such a case, man's priority is not to resolve the logical contradiction between the existence of evil and the existence of God, but requires an answer that repairs this relationship.The claim of the present article is that religious answers can better resolve the existential problem of evil and repair a person's relationship with God, or at least prevent the complete severance of his relationship with God. Religious answer means an answer that is first of all derived from religious texts; second, it is based on the cosmological, anthropological, and theological presuppositions accepted by religions. The eight religious answers to the existential problem of evil in this article are: calamity for temptation; misunderstanding due to ignorance and imperfect knowledge; warning for return and repentance; difficulties in preventing rebellion; rewards for actions in this world; abandonment of this world and engagement in the hereafter; otherworldly compensation for worldly suffering; evil for perfection.

“VALIDITY” is a commonly used term in epistemology. James makes use of constructional as a solution for strong rationalism and considers that as “assumption of belief” or “perceiving acceptance”. The criticisms to the theory of Will to Believe convey that a constructional issue corresponds to a reality in development or substantiation and also the truth is reduced to usefulness. Constructional in Allāma Tabātabā’ī’s theory of constructional perceptions is interpreted as artificiality and constructing some concepts to fulfill a human’s basic needs. Although this theory does not claim the truth for constructional perceptions, it conveys that the practical and ethical concepts and rules are artificial and relative reproductions. By offering a new explanation of constructional, without any alteration in the artificial or genuine perception of ethical issues, the present study aims to prepare a solution for the epistemological problem of some necessary and useful beliefs for which there is not sufficient evidence. In this analysis, by considering constructional as “assumption of belief” or “perceiving acceptance”, without any reliance on the truth that is expected from the consequences of a belief, it is showed that the constructional perceptions can be acknowledged as valid in the field of theoretical and practical sciences.

In recent decades, the principled theories of ethics have been criticized by the moral particularists. Criticisms, objections, and oppositions of particularists against those theories are diverse. An objection or challenge which has been one way or another put forth by many particularists is that the emphasis of the of principled ethics theorists on moral principles is at the expense of neglecting the importance of moral judgement. This paper addresses this objection. The aim is to show that the generalist not only can acknowledge the importance , but also have the means to develop an acceptable theory about moral judgement. This paper’s answer to the objection is proposing a special view towards moral judgement and moral principles according to which moral judgement itself depends on moral principles. In this view, both the nature of moral principles and the nature of moral judgement is crucial. Moral principles are neither mechanical decision mechanisms nor just theoretical principles. Moral principles are practical principles and a kind of extended determinations of the agent. Capacity of moral judgement requires some sensitivities, and sensitivities depend on our character. Finally, this paper analyses the roles of extended internal determinations, and especially moral principles, in the character of the agent.

In this study I have tried some meta-ethical reflections on moral responsibility involving disinformation. For this purpose, the conceptual analysis and the reflective equilibrium methods were used. Then, the study was focused on the conditions that this phenomenon occurs. Thus, I first tried to examine whether committing disinformation is a moral dilemma. I used some citations to philosophers and some examples to show dilemmatic view of moral problems is logically fallacious. In the second step, it has examined that whether committing disinformation takes place in the pressure condition and then, the possibility of moral decision in pressure condition was examined. The outcome of study in second step showed that ideal morality fails to explain actions in pressure conditions and implications of care ethics and doing best practices is the best way for doing in such conditions, if the provision of “helping to elimination of poverty and bridging the gap between poor and wealthy” fulfilled. In the third step, I tried to examine disinformation in the context of akrasia and weakness of will and the possibility of them from the moral philosophical point of view. By reviewing arguments of some philosophers, I introduced will and wish as a building blocks of the akrasia and weakness of will phenomenon. Then, 8 rules were predicted for determining moral responsibility in akratic and weakness of will conditions. At the end, i proposed the Fischer’s “Moderate reasons responsiveness” idea for determining moral responsibility in the “irresistible wish” condition.

What does moral paternalism entail? What about moralism? How do moral paternalism and moralism differ? In paternalism, at least in one interpretation, the aim is to prevent people from inflicting harm on themselves, not necessarily others. However, in moralism, the aim is to prevent people from committing what society regards as a wrongdoing to secure society’s understanding of morality. Some accounts of moralism argue that these wrongdoings ought to be criminalized. It is rather intuitive to claim that applying moral paternalism and moralism shall restrict people’s liberty. Which one of these two approaches is plausible to be applied by states? In this paper, we argue that moralism restricts people’s liberty unjustifiably, hence implausible. We will begin by explaining what paternalism amounts to. Next, we will critically evaluate moralism. We conclude by arguing that moralism is not a dependable approach. Keywords: “Paternalism”; “Moralism”; “Legal Enforcement of Morality”; “Morals”; “Conventional Morality”; “Legal Moralism”; “Lord Patrick Devlin”; “Immoral”; “Amoral”; “Normative Ethics’; “The Harm Principle”; “Freedom”.

The effectiveness of jurisprudence in the present age as one of the most prominent sciences among other branches of Islamic sciences is directly related to the degree of responsiveness of the logic of religious inference in the present time and its requirements. In this regard, in the literature of some contemporary fundamentalist scholars, the necessity of compiling a philosophy of the science of the principles of jurisprudence has been considered and basic measures such as a discussion framework have been presented by thinkers in this field. Since the study of epistemological foundations is always one of the pillars of philosophical thinking, the epistemology of the science of the principles of jurisprudence is also considered part of the philosophy of the science of principles. According to the findings of this study, by describing and analyzing the content, how to connect the principled argument and epistemological justification is one of the most important ways to extend cognitive discussions to principled discussions. If this claim is proven, the ground will be prepared for the implementation of various epistemological theories such as introversion and epistemic extroversion and justification mechanisms such as foundationalism and coherence in the principled argument. Consequently, the implementation of the epistemological tools of any principled basis promotes the system of authority and approximates the logic of inference in Islamic law with contemporary epistemology.

The relation between art and life has always been a most important problem that philosophers have paid attention to. Martin Heidegger is one of the great philosophers that art has a central role in his thought, and so in this essay we explored the relation between art and life in his thought and by way of philosophical analysis, hermeneutics and discourse analysis attempted to find that what relation between art and life Heidegger believe in.Heidegger elevates art to a way of human salvation and believes that art can help us in the face of our existential problems. And, for him, this salvation can only be done by great art, that it can fulfill its responsibilities to human life.The second task of this essay was to discover and enumerate these tasks from the heart of Heidegger's philosophy of art. The art seems to have the following duties towards human life: opening the world, making it holy, understanding how to live, creating a people, freedom, taking it out of everyday life, making ontological differences, and giving birth to a meaningful world out of a meaningless and mysterious context.Finally, the third task we dealt with was how, in Heidegger's view, art could accomplish these tasks and in a sense save men. According to him, art can accomplish the tasks by thematizing, repeating, showing the other side of things, providing a passionate experience, paying attention to details, showing the simple and basic lines of the world and distancing oneself from things.

Theodicy of Marilyn McCord Adams, contemporary analytic philosopher and theologian, argues that sufferers will experience an organic (not additive) unity after death and it will compensate their sufferings. She criticizes instrumental theodicy for their stress on moral values and suggests an aesthetic ground in which individual life of the sufferer will change in postmortem life. Adams’ theoretical theodicy in comparison with practical theodicy will show some deficiencies. Altogether it focus on evil rather than suffering. She considers Christ’s cross and sufferings as a sign for sympathy of God with human sufferings, but there are a far distance between meaningful suffering of Jesus and suffering of a child in Auschwitz. Adams’ emphasis on intimate relationship between God and human in postmortem eternal life leads to consolation and attention to supernatural realm, and so cause an apathy to concrete situation of persons and keeping out from objection to oppression and to sympathy and solidarity with sufferers.

Ibn Sina has put forward two arguments of "continuity and disconnection" and "potentiality and actuality" to to prove the existence of the prime matter. The argument for continuity and disconnection is that variation and change is not possible unless there is the prime matter, the prime matter that is a common component and provides identity during variation and change. In this article, we have shown in an argument that this argument does not support its claim to prove the existence of the prime matter, nor can it solve the continuity and disconnection.Another proof of the prime matter is the proof of potentiality and actuality, we have shown in this article, based on the argument of potentiality and actuality, it is not possible to prove the prime matter.As we have shown, the two main arguments of the existence of the prime matter cannot prove the prime matter of Ibn Sina

 The present article aims at explaining and applying the two theories of metaethical "error" and " credit perceptions" by John Mackie and Allameh Seyyed Mohammad Hosein Tabatabaei. This article's research design is a library method and attempts to discover, analyze, explain and form the implicit and explicit presuppositions of two significant metaethical theories named "error-theory" and " credit perceptions" respectively designed by John Mackie and Seyyed Mohammad Hosein Tabatabaei. Since the language of ethics, the metaphysics of ethics, the rationality of ethics, and the perception of ethics are some of the most suggestive metaethical assumptions, we will analyze these components in the present research. The result of the comparison is that although the point departure between the error and contingent theory is in one of the anthropological foundations of moral knowledge of these two theories – in the contingent theory, the existence and validity of fixed convention perceptions that are rooted in human nature are pointed out, unethical realism in ethical metaphysics, cognitivism in ethical language, ethical realism in ethical rationality and unrealism in ethical knowledge are important commonalities of these two theories.